13.Indus Valley Civilization Part-II

Indus civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization or Harappan civilization, is
the earliest known urban culture of the Indian subcontinent. It is also called the Saraswati
civilization or Ghaggar Hakra civilization.

Characteristics of Indus Valley Civilization

1. Town planning was a distinctive feature of Harappan culture.
2. The ruling class may have resided in the citadel or acropolis found in Harappan cities.
3. The common people lived in a lower town located beneath the citadel.
4. What was amazing was how the houses were arranged in the cities according to a grid system, with roads intersecting each other almost at right angle
5. Popular public buildings were situated in the Citadel. Some important examples of public buildings :
   • The Great Bath,
   • Granary
   • Large tank found at Dholavira.
   • Pillared hall.

The construction of massive branches served as a means of impressing upon the common people the prestige and influence of their rulers, while the monuments found in the cities represented the ability of the ruling class to mobilize labor and collect taxes. [Source: R.S. Sharma]

The Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro is made up of a tank that is 2.43 meters deep, 7.01 meters deep, and 11.88 meters deep. It is located inside the citadel mound. There are rooms on either side for changing clothes, and stairs at each end lead to the surface. The bathroom’s floor was composed of charred bricks. An outlet from the bath’s corner led to a drain, and water was taken from a sizable well in the room next door.

Indus Valley Civilization Sanitation

The complex drainage system comprised main drains, street drains, individual house drains, and an outlet into the river outside the city. This system included main drains, street drains, and house drains. Bricks were used to cover street drains, and cleaning provisions were installed. Dustbins were also positioned alongside the streets.

Diversity of subsistence base

Their main source of income was agriculture, which was augmented by fishing, hunting, and animal husbandry. Plain remains, different kinds of granaries, plows, a variety of crafts, plant remains, animal bones, and motifs are among the artifacts discovered during archaeology.
There is evidence of rice cultivation in Lothal and Rangpur, as well as food crops like wheat, barley, mustard, and peas. Rojdi and Lothal were also discovered to have millets.

These people also engaged in trade and craft activities to augment their means of subsistence.

Indus Valley Civilization Contact with Distant Lands

• They continued to communicate with Faraway Lands.
• Literature and archeological evidence point to interactions with far-off places.
• Literary Evidence : Texts from Mesopotamia mention communication with Meluha and Dilmun Magan. Most likely, Meluha represented the Harappan region, Magan the Makran coast, and Dilmun Bahrain.
• Archeological Evidence : Harappan beads and seals have been discovered in Mesopotamian towns like Ur, Lagas, Nippur, and Kis. The discovery of Harappan dice was made in Alhiba, Egypt. We have discovered an extensive collection of Harappan artifacts in Ras ul Unayas, Oman.
• It is in Altyen Tepe that several Indus artifacts have been discovered. Omani copper has been discovered recently at several Indus Valley locations.
• Every one of these pieces of evidence supports the claims made by historians about the Indus Valley Civilization’s significant connections to other places.

Internal trade in Indus Valley Civilization

1. A highly advanced system of internal trade and communication was necessary to sustain a high level of living.
2. They traded internally using bullock carts.
3. They sourced their raw materials and commodities from various regions.
   • Imported gold came from South India.
   • Iran and Afghanistan produce silver.
   • Lapis lazuli: It was a widely traded stone. It wasn’t accessible locally. The source of it was Afghanistan.
   • Iranian turquoise.
   • The central Asian jade.
   • Rajasthani copper.
4. It’s possible that standardized weights and measures—chert being the material used for the weights—governed the exchange. These weights were usually cubic and had a ratio of 16, 32, 64.

Different crafts

Superior technology was utilized by these people in making different crafts. The following
craft-making activities were popular during this period:

• Pottery making: Red pottery with black design.
• Terracotta making
• Stone cutting.
• Metal crafts: Copper and Bronze.
• Jewelry making.
• Bead making.
• Shell processing (Chanhudaro).
• Seal making (Chanhudaro).
• Bangles making.

Water management

Since the majority of the sites were located in semi-arid areas, irrigation was necessary for farming. In different areas, they employed various irrigation methods. According to a study by H.P. Frankfurt, the regions of Sindh and Punjab may have used canal irrigation. They had wells as well.

Dholavira is a noteworthy illustration of a water management system that stores water for agricultural use. In addition to the existence of dockyards, embankments were built to aid in the distribution of water. The presence of a well-thought-out drainage system suggests that their water management techniques are working.

Social differences

Historians have not uncovered any literary evidence indicating caste distinctions during
this period. However, there is evidence supporting the existence of a class hierarchy,
suggesting elements of inequality based on the class system.

1. Proof of cities with lower Town and Citadel.
2. A variety of house styles.
3. Several kinds of funeral customs.
4. A variety of pottery kinds were discovered.
5. The various professions in society.
6. We discovered tiny porcelain pots.
7. According to the evidence above, society was divided into various strata. Mother Goddess was revered, implying that women had a higher status. A certain level of social stratification existed. There is evidence of affluent class existence and class stratification in society through the presence of luxury items crafted from faience.

Faience

Faience is an artificially produced material, unlike natural materials like stone or shell. Sand or quartz powder were shaped into objects using a gum.
After that, the items were glazed. giving rise to a glassy, glossy surface. Typically, the glaze had shades of blue or sea green. Tiny vessels, earrings, bangles, and beads were all made from porcelain.

Harappan people

• The Harappan population was generally in fairly good health.
• The skeletons revealed a low prevalence of neoplastic diseases (tumors), chronic infectious diseases, and traumatic injuries. No signs of inadequate nutrition were present.
• Harappan women wore wool or cotton short skirts. The accessories worn by female figurines include belts, bangles, chokers, necklaces, and hair ornaments.
• A few stone sculptures depict the wearer wearing an upper garment that is a shawl or cloak draped over one shoulder and beneath the other. The lower garment is similar to a dhoti.
• Men and women have been observed sporting a range of hairstyles.
• A large proportion of the male figurines had beards.
• Dogs were owned as pets by the locals.
• Photographs with humorous elements have been recognized by historians.

Religious life in Indus Valley Civilization

1. Nothing that has been dug up thus far can be classified as a place of worship; that is, nothing resembling a temple.
2. However, historians have discovered some buildings, such as a large bath that was utilized for ceremonial purposes.
3. Evidence of fire worship has been found at Lothal and Kalibangan.
4. There is also proof that amulets representing particular religions exist.
5. Certain terracotta figurines, like the mother goddess, have been discovered by historians to be associated with religious rituals.
6. They paid homage to Matri Devi, the mother goddess. Historians like A.A. Jansen study the many varieties of Mother goddesses that have been discovered.

Characteristics of Mother Goddess

• One of the best large-scale terracotta figures found at different Indus Valley Civilization sites is the Mother Goddess. This crudely standing female figure has necklaces hanging from her neck and some body adornment.
• She is shown with a girdle and dressed like a lion.
• The fan-shaped headpiece has unique ornamental elements, such as cups.
• She was regarded as a creation symbol,
• Goddesses were frequently connected to childbirth and fertility.
  • According to some scholars, worship was focused on the sex organs, Yoni and Linga.
  • The people were observed to have a common practice of honoring trees, particularly pipal trees.
  • Characters like Santamaria were included in religious rituals.
  • Evidence supports the ritual of tree worship, along with the worship of animals and nature, emphasizing the significance of the humped bull.
  • There is evidence indicating the worship of a male deity as well.

Proto-shiva seals

• Additionally, there is proof of proto-Shiva seals.
• This seal, which we refer to as Pashupati, depicts a man sitting in a yogic pose surrounded by animals, including elephants, tigers, buffalo, rhinos, and dear. It also features a buffalo horn headdress.

Burials practices

1. There is evidence of a variety of burial customs, such as fractional burials, coffin burials, joint burials, extended burials, yarn burials, and symbolic burials.
2. Grave goods have also been found, suggesting a belief in a hereafter.
3. The deceased were usually buried facing north with their heads pointing north and their bodies resting on their backs.
4. Different religious traditions were practiced by Harappan communities in different regions.
5. John Marshal has made comparisons between Hinduism and Harappan religion, highlighting his points with symbols that are common to both religions—the Swastika and Harappan religious practices.

Seals

• Numerous seals in a range of shapes, including square, rectangular, cylindrical, and circular, have been identified.
• In particular, the square seals are unique to the Harappan culture.
• Most of these seals were made of steatite, but some were also made of silver and had brief inscriptions on them.

Significance of Seals

1. Commercial importance.
2. Religious importance.
3. Scripts- historical significance.
4. Artistic significance.
5. Political significance.

Scripts

• The scripts of the Harappan era are well known.
• Though their theories are not always agreed upon, scholars like Wadel, Hunter, Mahadevan, Longdem, and Parpola have added to our understanding of it.
• There is still no decipherment of the Harappan script.
• Its orientation is Boustrophedon, and it demonstrates logo-syllabic and pictographic traits.

Evidence of some kind of Authority

1. Piggot claims that the Harappan era was marked by a highly centralized empire headed by a priest-king, with the twin capitals of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa.
2. Piggot used comparable artifacts, planned settlements, standardized weights and measures, uniform features like the drainage system, seals, and pottery, as well as consistent brick ratios, to bolster his central thesis. This theory was first supported by finds like a stone image of a pure king and several granaries, but it was later disproved in 1960.
3. S.C. Malik contended that the Harappan polity was a chiefdom state rather than a state system, in contrast to Piggot’s viewpoint.
4. Malik asserted that it wasn’t a state-based society, emphasizing the absence of a single ruler and the presence of multiple rulers, along with various competing classes like traders and priests in different regions.

Conclusion

Some historians believed the cultural homogeneity of the Harappan people would not
have been possible to achieve without some kind of central authority. Yet, there is uncertainty regarding the nature of authority, whether it is centralized
or decentralized.

Art and architecture

• The building process was straightforward and practical.
• No indication of building ornamentation is available to us.
• These folks were not without artistic ability, though.
• There is proof that there were sculptures, jewelry, seals, and pottery.
• These are all proof of their artistic ability. The art of the Harappan people was thus acknowledged.

Decline Of Indus Valley Civilization?

• There is still disagreement among academics regarding the specific causes of the Indus Valley Civilization’s collapse and the reasons behind its decline. A number of theories have been proposed to explain why this ancient civilization fell.
• It is hypothesized that a number of factors, including recurrent floods, rivers’ shifting courses, overexploitation-related soil fertility loss, and sporadic earthquakes, contributed to the decline of the Harappan towns.
• It is widely acknowledged that the decline did not occur suddenly but rather developed over a prolonged period of time.

Invasion theory: Civilization was destroyed by Aryan invaders

Mortimer Wheeler : Wheeler contended that allusions to different types of forts, assaults on walled cities, and the god Indra’s epithet Purandara (destroyed of forts) had to be historically grounded and represent an Aryan invasion of the Harappan cities.
He connected Harappa and a location in the Rig Veda named Hariyupia. In addition, he cited specific skeletal remains discovered at Mohenjo-Daro as evidence of the Aryan massacre. He claimed that the ceremony-H culture was an embodiment of the Aryan invasion culture.

Views of P.V.Kane, George Dales, and B.B.Lal rejected the invasion theory

• No indications of a military attack or battle at any Harappan location.
• It is impossible to link the 37 groups of skeletal remains at Mohenjodaro to a single event because they do not come from the same cultural phase.
• The Aryans arrived in 1500 BC, but the decline began after 1800 BC. Therefore, there’s no use in putting up with any attack.

Role of flood/Earthquake

1. Robert L. Raikes and M.R. Sahni present this theory.
2. According to the Theory of Catastrophic Flooding, the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization was primarily caused by a large-scale flood event.
3. With a particular emphasis on Mohenjo-Daro, M. R. Sahni and Robert L. Raikes contend that the Indus region, being a seismic zone, underwent rock faulting as a result of tectonic movements, leaving evidence of silt deposition. They link the fall of civilization to this geological phenomenon.
4. This theory is not, however, generally acknowledged as the main explanation. While silt deposits can explain migration patterns and abandonment reasons, historians contend that they are insufficient as the only explanation for the decline of the civilization.
5. The view among historians is that silt deposition may have contributed to the region’s desertion, but it alone cannot account for the comprehensive decline of this ancient civilization.

Shifting of Indus River

• Lambrick’s theory on the Shifting of the Indus River proposes that alterations in the river’s course played a pivotal role in the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization.
• This theory holds that the river’s altered course, possibly brought about by tectonic action or organic geomorphic processes, caused some urban centers to be abandoned because the river no longer passed near them.
• This change in the river’s path might have resulted in less water resources being available, which is important for daily life and agriculture.
• The theory emphasizes the effects of the environment on civilization, with the shifting course of the river playing a part in upsetting long-standing agricultural and trade networks.
• The Shifting of the Indus River theory highlights the possible influence of geographical changes on the fate of the ancient Harappan towns, even though it is not widely accepted.

Drying up of River

1. According to a theory put forth by M.R. Mughal, the Indus Valley Civilization declined because of the desiccation of its rivers, which led to population stress and deterioration in agriculture.
2. Mughal’s theory is based on a thorough analysis of archeological findings made in the Cholistan Desert, which was once part of the Indus Valley Civilization’s domain.
3. The excavations conducted in the Cholistan Desert revealed a recurring pattern of settlement abandonment, suggesting that the diminishing rivers were making it increasingly difficult for the local inhabitants to sustain a sustainable way of life.
4. This idea emphasizes the possible connection between environmental variables—especially river desiccation—and the downfall of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization.

Increase Aridity

• D.P. Agarwal and Sood contended that an extended period of greater aridity was the main factor contributing to the fall of the Indus Valley Civilization.
• Agriculture and the whole urban economy suffered greatly as a result of this aridity, which decreased moisture and water availability.The Ghaggar-Hakra river in particular is thought to have dried up, which is one of the main causes of the increased aridity.
• This once-thriving civilization finally collapsed due to widespread disruptions in agriculture, trade, and urban life brought on by the prolonged period of drought and the ensuing water scarcity.

Study of Gurdip Singh

1. The pollen studies carried out by Gurudip Singh in Rajasthani lakes produced significant evidence about the changes in climate that contributed to the fall of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC).
2. Singh discovered a slow shift from a humid to an arid environment through his study of pollen deposits, indicating a decline in rainfall and an increasing trend in aridity.
3. The IVC’s main industry, agriculture, was negatively impacted by this change in the weather. Singh’s findings support the theory of increasing aridity put forth by D.P. Agarwal and Sood, suggesting that extended drought conditions were a major factor in the collapse of the civilization.

Study of Shree Ratnagar

He has maintained that one of the reasons behind the downfall of the Harappan civilization was the decrease in the trade of lapis lazuli with Mesopotamia.

Theory of Ecological Imbalance

• According to Fair Servis Ecological Imbalance Theory, the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) gradually declined.
• Servis contends that an imbalance resulted from a population growth that exceeded the region’s ability to support it. This theory was widely acknowledged.
• In 2012, Rononjay Adhikari presented the Monsoon theory, a novel theory that also examined climate change as a contributing factor.
• Adhikari’s theory emphasizes the effect of shifting monsoon patterns on the sustainability of the IVC, which is consistent with the concept of ecological shifts.

Conclusion

1. In conclusion, the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) changed gradually over time rather than collapsing all at once.
2. This transition from a developed phase to a later stage known as the late Harappan phase started about 1900 BCE.
3. In this period, people began to migrate further east and south. Agriculture underwent changes and cities declined during the late Harappan period.
4. The once-uniform Harappan civilization started to disappear. It would be more accurate to characterize this transformation as a slow movement away from urban living, or de-urbanization, rather than just a simple decline.
5. So, the civilization didn’t exactly decline but went through a complex process of change. Now historians believe in survival and continuity theory, there was no complete disappearance. They are more focused on various aspects of continuity. Only the urban phase came to an end and many aspects continued :
   • worshiped of mother goddess
   • proto shiva
   • Linga puja
   • Yoga
   • The use of Amulets
   • Many burials
   • Personal hygiene
   • Tree worship
   • Animal worship
   • Cultivation of crops, wheat, and barley
   • House plant settlement patterns
   • Weights and measures
   • Pottery tradition
   • Many techniques
   • Bead making
   • Drainage system

The persistence of Harappan customs into the modern era is not limited to religious and spiritual domains; it is also evident in lifestyle choices, patterns of settlement, attire, technology, and methods of weight loss.

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