14. Vedic Period

Vedic Period Yajna by Brahmanas

Early Vedic period (1500 – 1000 BC) : During, the Early Vedic period around 1500 BC, the primary source of information is the Rigveda, with limited archaeological evidence available.


Later Vedic period (1000 – 600 BC) : In the Later Vedic period around 600 BC, we rely on later Vedic texts along with the presence of Painted Grey Ware (PGW) sites for a more comprehensive understanding.

Was the Aryan invasion a myth or a reality?

Historians have not accepted the theory of the Aryan Invasion. They acknowledge that the migration of Aryans to the Subcontinent has occurred.

Historians are confused regarding the following

  • What did the Indo-Aryans look like?
  • From where did they originate?
  • How did the Vedic and Harappan cultures relate to each other?
  • The Rig Veda’s composers identified as Arya, which is a term of cultural or ethnic meaning. The word may have come from the verb ar (to cultivate) or mean “kinsman” or “companion.”
  • Linguists and historians use Indo-European and Indo-Aryan, which have nothing to do with racial classification. These are terms from language that describe groups of languages and the people who speak them.
  • The Indo-Aryans spoke a language subgroup that belonged to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family.
  • Aryans are language groupings.

These issues have not always been treated as purely academic ones. They have political implications and have been used to serve diverse political agendas, both in colonial and post-colonial times. And despite vigorous and often volatile debate spanning over two centuries, there is still no answer

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Different scholars have expressed different opinions home of the Aryans

  1. Penka: Germany
  2. P.Giles: Austria, Hungry
  3. Nehring: South Russia
  4. G.Child: Scandinavia
  5. Dayananda Saraswati: Tibet
  6. Tilak: Indigenous people
  7. D.S.kala: Himalayan region
  8. A.C.Das: Spat Saindhav Pradesh
  9. Max Muller: Central Asia

Aryans Expansion: There are two phases of Aryan Expansion

Early phase – Early Vedic Period

The early Aryans lived in areas that are now part of Punjab, eastern Afghanistan, and the western edges of Uttar Pradesh. The Rig Veda is the main source of information about this time period. A number of rivers are mentioned in detail in the Rig Veda’s Nadi Sukta, including Gomal (Gomati), Kubha (Kabul), Komu (Kuram), and Suvastu. The Rig Veda also mentions rivers like Vitasta, Shatudri, Vipas, Parushni, and Asikani.

These references suggest that the Sapta Sindhu region was home to the early Aryans. Along the banks of these rivers, there is evidence of battles like the Dasrajna (Battle of Ten Kings).Notably, the geographical knowledge of the Aryans appears to have been limited to the regions around the Yamuna and Ganga rivers, as indicated in the Rig Veda.

Later Phase – Later Vedic Period

The Aryans mainly extended their geographical reach eastward during the later Vedic period.

References to the Indian and Arabian oceans in their records show that their knowledge reached far beyond the local area.

The Satha Patha Brahmana records their eastward migration and mentions that they reached Sadanira (present-day Gandak).

PGW (Painted Grey Ware)

  • Pottery that has been painted gray (PGW) is a smooth and uniform color pottery. There are currently over 700 PGW sites found in the Upper Ganga Basin.
  • This pottery had basic geometric designs painted in black and was crafted from premium clay. The method of firing was highly advanced.
  • These pottery discoveries point to the existence of small villages, possibly spanning one to four hectares, with the exception of Bhukari in Punjab.
  • PGW deposits, which are frequently 2-4 meters deep, show that people gradually moved into settled communities rather than staying in one location for an extended period of time.
  • Near PGW sites, numerous iron weapons and farming implements were discovered, demonstrating the advancement of technology.
  • Historians disagree over whether iron was employed in this era’s agriculture. According to Professor R.S. Sharma, iron was used for farming and even for clearing forests with iron plows.
  • Historians such as Makhan Lal contend that the myth of iron plows is unfounded, implying that iron may not have been a common material.

We can mention some important PGW sites

  1. Ahichchhatra in UP – Bareilly – The first PGW site was found in Ahichchhatra.
  2. Atranjikheda in UP – Etta district.
  3. Hastinapur in Meerut.
  4. Bhagwanpura in Kurukshetra.
  5. Jakhera
  6. Noh, Bharatpur – Rajasthan.

Economic Life

Early Vedic period ( EVP )

Later Vedic period ( LVP )

  1. A discernible transition to an agriculture-based economy occurred in the later Vedic period, coinciding with profound shifts in material culture. Known as Shyam Ayask or Krishna Ayask, the introduction of iron use was a significant development during this period. Agriculture experienced a significant growth and emerged as the primary economic activity. A number of agricultural techniques, such as deep plowing, were described in texts such as the Sapt path Brahmana. Some sources also mentioned the use of 8 ,12 and 24 oxen for plowing.
  2. The Atharveda described customs that reflected the changing agricultural landscape, such as rerouting rivers to form new channels. Later Vedic texts included references to particular varieties of rice, such as Vrihi, Tandula, and Sali, indicating a varied cultivation of rice types. Godhum was also mentioned, which probably refers to various grains like barley and wheat. They also included tilapia, another food item, in their diet.
  3. During this time, the idea of property became based on land. Tin, silver, iron, and copper were used extensively, and as a result, a number of professions related to these metals emerged. The term “Kusidin” was used to refer to moneylenders in texts such as the Satpath Brahmana, which provides evidence of the earliest days of commerce.Although some historians thought the term “Niska” denoted a coin, this was rejected.
  4. The emergence of new arts and crafts during the later Vedic era suggests a shift in economic activity. The term “Nagara” was used to allude to proto-urbanization. Additionally, there was a shift in economic practices from voluntary offerings to a chief-collected tax system, signifying a substantial shift in societal norms.

Social life

The early Vedic Period society

Based on kinship, the early Vedic society was set up as a tribal community. The hierarchy of the early Vedic society was composed of the family, or “Kula,” larger social units such as the clan, or “Vis,” and finally the tribe, or “Jana.”The family, or “Kula,” was the fundamental social unit, with the eldest male, or “Kulapa,” serving as the head of the household. This family was patriarchal, with the eldest male member serving as the head of the household.

In spite of this, women in the society enjoyed a good status and a range of rights. They were well-educated, occupied prominent roles, and took part in political gatherings and ceremonies. Notable examples of educated women are Ghosa, Viswara, Apala, and Lopamudra, who also wrote numerous hymns.

In this society, women were free to select their partners, and there is no proof of customs like child marriage, parda, or sati. Despite improvements in women’s status, the society remained patriarchal. But general prayers were frequently offered in honor of sons’ birth. The evidence points to the Niyoga system and the existence of female slaves.

Four Fold Social Divisions

The Rigveda’s 10th Mandla in the Purush-shukta made reference to the Varna system.
However, it wasn’t adhered to strictly. Differentiation by occupation existed. Historians encountered a family composed of a mother who worked as a corn grinder, a father who practiced medicine, and a son who was a poet. There was a division of labor during this time.
It was therefore, in a sense, an egalitarian society (based on equality).

Social Condition Later Vedic Period

  1. Women’s status declined during the Later Vedic era, and their access to political and ritual rights was restricted. The Varna system, which at first aided in the division of labor, progressively changed such that Brahmins and Kshatriyas surpassed Vaishyas in power. Shudras’s standing in society declined.
  2. During this time, people began to settle down, which helped the four-fold Varna divisions become more firmly established. As social differentiation grew, discrimination was based on the Varna system.
  3. Originally, the word “Varna” meant “color,” possibly referring to differences in skin tone between the black-skinned natives and the white-skinned Aryan migrants. The four varnas were described as interconnected societal segments in the Purusha Shukta of the Rig Veda.
  4. In the later Vedic era, Shudras served the upper three varnas, while Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas were granted the status of Dvija. In the Later Vedic period, this resulted in social stratification.
  5. Later in the Vedic era, Kshatriyas turned into protectors and Brahmanas became more significant, demanding social and ritual privileges. Following the establishment of the Gotra system, it became illegal for members of the same Gotra to marry. Women’s status declined as a result of families becoming more patriarchal and appreciating the birth of sons while viewing the birth of daughters as a cause for sadness.

Political Life

Early Vedic Period

  • The early Vedic era in ancient India saw people governing themselves more like tribes than as a formal state. Small tribal groups gradually arose over time, as evidenced by the Rig Veda’s mention of about thirty tribes. Anu, Yadu, Puru, Druhayu, and Turvasa were the five tribes known as “Panchjana” and were regarded as the most significant.
  • These tribes’ chief was referred to as the “Rajan,” or tribal chief. The Rajan, also called “Janasya Gopa,” was mainly a military leader tasked with defending the village against rival locals like Panis, Dasas, and Dsyus in conflicts over cattle and resources. Because they possessed horses, chariots, and superior copper-based weapons, the early Aryans had an advantage in combat. However, the idea of hereditary succession wasn’t fully established.
  • Tribal assemblies, such as the Vidath assembly, which limited the king’s power, the Sabha council of elder members, which even included women, and Samiti assembly, which was broader in scope, all supported the Rajan’s authority.
  • With the Sabha, a council of elder members that included women, these assemblies significantly curtailed the king’s power. Samiti was an inclusive, less exclusive assembly. Although the Rajan’s political function was unclear—it might have functioned as a military or cultural assembly—Vidath curtailed the Rajan’s authority.
  • The Rajan depended on the Purohit as well for assistance. The chief queen, Mahishi, also played a big part. There isn’t any conclusive proof of a taxation system in spite of these structures, but there were voluntary tributes known as Bali.

later Vedic period : Evolution of Monarchy

  1. Historians have discovered evidence that suggests the idea of kingship underwent a substantial evolution in the later Vedic period. During this time, there was “a shift from tribal governance to the establishment of territorial states,” according to Upinder Singh. It is described as “a transition from lineage-based societies to more centralized states” by Romila Thappar.
  2. During this period, different kinds of governance were practiced in various areas, and later Vedic texts mention concepts like Swarajya, Samrat, Virat, and Rastra. The rise of multiple kingdoms, referred to as Janapadas, was an important event. The election of a king is mentioned in the Atharvaveda.
  3. The idea of a ten-generation kingdom is covered in texts like the Sathapatha Brahmana and Aitareya Brahmana. As various Janas and tribes united, larger political entities emerged. Examples of this phenomenon, known as the coalescing of tribes, are the joining of Purus and Bharata to form Kurus and the creation of the Panchalas by Turvasa and Kivis.
  4. Kings became more powerful during this time, as demonstrated by Parikshit of the Kurus. There are clear references to the development of taxation systems and mentions of the 12 Ratnins or officials supporting the king. A religious aura was created around their rule by the various rituals, like the Rajasuya, that kings performed to strengthen their authority.
  5. In addition to being strong, kingship became inherited. With time, the importance of the Vedic assemblies—Sabha, Samiti, and others—wanted, and Vidatha vanished from public life. The authority of these assemblies waned as royal power increased. During this time, a polity based on territories, or Janapadas, began to gradually emerge.

Religion Ideas

Religion Ideas during the Early Vedic Period

  • The Rigveda, which discusses 33 gods that can be divided into three major categories, provides insight into the rich diversity of religious practices prevalent during the early Vedic era. First, there are gods of territory such as Agni, Soma, and Prithvi. Thirdly, celestial gods like Surya are mentioned, and secondly, there are gods of the atmosphere. The majority male representation of the Rigvedic gods in popular culture suggests a patriarchal society.
  • The Rigveda has no set hierarchy and a varied list of gods. This is what Max Mueller called “Kathenotheism and Henotheism.” While Kathenotheism involves the worship of one god at a time, Henotheism emphasizes that the deity invoked in a particular hymn is considered supreme.
  • Among the major gods of the Rigveda, Indra is one of the most important and often mentioned. Zeus, the Greek god, and Indra have certain similarities, according to A.L. Basham. Indra, also known as Maghevan and Vritrihan, is infamous for demolishing forts (Purandar). He is surrounded by Ghandarwas and Apsaras and is known for drinking Soma.
  • Varuna is depicted as the “Rita,” or defender of cosmic order, and Agni is regarded as an intermediate god. In addition, Surya is important, and the well-known Gayatri mantra is crucial. It is acknowledged that God Pushan is the protector of roads.
  • The Rigveda’s religious requirements during the early Vedic era were essentially protection-related, and the rituals were simple. The approach towards religion was simple, lacking the complexity that developed in the later Vedic period.

Religion of Later Vedic Period

Two different religious traditions

  1. Vedic which is documented in the Sama and Yajurveda samhitas and the Brahmanas.
  2. Non-Vedic or perhaps folk traditions extensively documented in the Atharvaveda.

Later Vedic Period

  • The way that people practiced their religion underwent major changes in the later Vedic period.
  • The ceremonies and rituals grew longer and more intricate. Vajapeya, Rajasuye, and Ashwamedha, grand royal rituals that lasted for days, became more prevalent. Rich families could only afford the elaborate rituals of Ashwamedha, which involved horse sacrifices, and Vajapeya, which means “drink of strength.”
  • These ceremonies were conducted by skilled Brahmans, who used it as a means of wealth redistribution while also demonstrating the chiefs’ power.
  • The importance of some gods that were prominent in the early Vedic era diminished, giving rise to new gods like Rudra, Vishnu, and the creator god Prajapati.
  • There is evidence of folk traditions recorded in the Atharvaveda in later Vedic literature. This covers beliefs, superstitions, and magical formulas. The Atharvaveda describes tales of magicians and dark magic, as well as creatures that cause harm, such as Rakshasas and Pisachas.
  • The prominence of black magic, the complexity and cost of rituals, and the priesthood were the defining characteristics of the later Vedic period.
  • Upanishadic thought arose in reaction to these changes. The Upanishads introduced the concept of a universal god and the path of knowledge, challenging the efficacy of rituals and priestly domination (Gyan Marg). The Upanishads, which challenged the ritual-centric practices of the later Vedic period and marked a high point in religious thought, were centered on inner transformation.

Various Approaches to the Understanding of Vedic Religion?

  1. Approaches 1: Naturalistic Polytheism- They believed in many Gods.
  2. Approaches 2: Henotheism or Kathernotheism
  3. Approaches 3: Necessity of Sacrifice for the maintenance of the world order.
  4. Approaches 4: Monism and Monotheism- Many Gods but they represent the same reality.
  5. Approaches 5: Agnosticism and Atheism.

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