23.Development in North India

Political Development in North India during Gupta Period

In India, the early medieval era is frequently associated with a feudal system. Land grants started to be given out in the post-Mauryan period. The lack of a large bureaucracy similar to the Mauryas made it difficult for the Gupta emperors to centralize and control the Samanta system. In spite of the efforts of King Harshavardhana, the feudal system continued to exist in India during the Post-Gupta era.

Administrative Development in North India during Gupta Period

The king continued to play a crucial role in governance during the Gupta era, but there were indications of waning royal power. Grand titles like Parambhattaraka, Chakravarti, and Parmeshwar were introduced, indicating that the kings believed themselves to be divine. Lesser kings rose to power during this period, particularly among the Samantas, which weakened the central government.

During this time, the power of ministers decreased, and some of them held multiple positions as their positions became inherited. The administrative framework was simpler and more structured. As new officers rose to prominence as chiefs of the palace guard, Pratihara and Maha Pratihara were frequently rewarded with land.

A gradual loss of central control over resources occurred despite the king’s continued reliance on land revenue as the main source of taxation. Land grants and the transfer of authority aided in the ascent of strong Samantas, who gathered local taxes like those of Shulka and Bali. The king found it difficult to maintain authority over outlying regions, which resulted in a dispersed government.

The empire was split up into Desas, or provinces, and Bhuktis was further subdivided and ruled by Upariks. Bhuktis were divided into Vishyas (districts), each of which was governed by a council made up of four people: Sarthavaha, Prathama Kulik (representatives of the local artisans), Nagar Shresthi (president of the trading organization), and Pratham Kayastha.

At the local level, districts were divided into Vithis, and Vithis were further divided
into Gramas. Autonomy prevailed at the local level, with administration being managed
by local elements. These trends indicated a shift towards decentralization and
feudalization during the Gupta period.

Popularity of Land Grants of the Gupta Period

A famous book from this era called the Amarakosha described twelve different types of land. Numerous inscriptions attest to the existence of royal land grants. For example, the Samudra Gupta’s copper plate from Gaya records the kind donation of many villages to Brahmins, and the Nalanda copper plate also mentions this. The donation of a village to a Vishnu temple is mentioned in the Bhitari plate of Skandagupta.

Nineteen inscriptions attest to the vast land grants made by the then-ruler Pravarasena, including one wherein twenty villages were given as a gift.
Another source that provides information on land grants during this time period is the Gunaigarh inscription.

Numerous terms were employed for land measurement, such as dronavapa, angul,
dhanu, and nala. The Gunaigarh inscription and other sources provide ample evidence
of diverse land types and gifts during this historical period.

Types of Tenures	Nature of Holdings
Nivi Dharma	Endowment of land under a kind of trusteeship was prevalent in North and Central India and Bengal.
Nivi Dharma Aksayana	A perpetual endowment. The recipient could make use of income derived from it
Aprada dharma	Income from land could be enjoyed, but the recipients are not permitted to gift it to anyone. The recipient has no administrative rights either.
Bhumichchi-dranyaya	Right of ownership acquired by a person making barren land cultivable for the first time. This land was free from any rent liability.

Different Types of Land in Gupta Period :

Kshetra	Cultivatable land
khula	Wasteland
Aprahata	Jungle or wasteland
Vasti	Habitable land
Gapata Saraha	Pastoral land

Trends that continued in the Post-Gupta period 600AD

There was a Rise of a small kingdom.
No strong central authority.
Samanta became more powerful.

Some examples of small kingdoms

The Mandsor inscription clarifies King Yasodharman’s hegemony in Malwa.
A prominent ruler of the later Gupta era, Aditya Sena is mentioned in the Apsad inscription.

The Varman dynasty was important in Kamrup, Assam, especially during the reign of Bhaskar Varman. Bhaskar Varman’s notable accomplishments are also highlighted in Huen-Shang’s accounts.

Other significant figures were the Gauds of Bengal, led by the well-known Shashak, and the Maitrakas of Vallabhi in Gujarat.

Important figures in the political landscape included the Pushyabhuti dynasty in Thanesar, Haryana (also known as Vardhan of Haryana), and the Maukharis in Gaya and Kannuj.

Among these, the Pushyabhuti kings of Thanesar overcame the Hunas’ challenge with success. As the most important dynasty ruler, Prabhakar Vardhan gained the title of “lion for Huna deer,” which helped the Pushyabhuti dynasty become well-known.

Reign of Harshavardhan and Development in North India

Sources

For a long time, Banabhatta, the court poet of Harshavardhana, was a major source of information. He wrote the books “Harshacharita” and “Kadambari.” Even though Banabhatta’s accounts are instructive, contemporary historians believe them to be biased.
Huen Tsang, a Chinese traveler, is another important source. He visited in the seventh century AD and wrote about his experiences in “Si-yu-ki,” or the Buddhist record, which Samuel Beal translated.
Despite the fact that this source offers useful information, it is thought to be a little over the top, probably because of Harsha’s strong support for Buddhism. Dramas like “Ratnavali,” “Nagananda,” and “Priyadarshika,” which are credited to Harsha, are thought to be less useful by historians.
Modern scholars emphasize the need of cross-referencing and confirming these accounts with other sources in order to improve historical accuracy.
At the moment, a number of inscriptions, including those from the Banskheda, Madhuban, Sonipat, and Aihole plates, are crucial to our comprehension.
While the Madhuban plate inscription goes into detail about Harshavardhana’s family, the Aihole inscription focuses on his military prowess.
In addition, the Banskheda inscription illuminates his administrative prowess, while the Sonipat inscription offers insights into the historical background of his period.
All together, these inscriptions are an invaluable resource for comprehending the complex facets of Harshavardhana’s reign.

Analysis of Harsha

Historians such as Dr. R.C. Majumdar have given Harsha a more nuanced analysis after he was once praised by earlier historians based on stories from Banabhatt and Huen Tsang as one of the greatest rulers of northern India and the last empire builder of Hindu India.

Dr. Majumdar declines to label Harsha as the final empire builder when reevaluating him in light of the difficulties of his era, citing the achievements of later kings like Lalitaditya and Yashovarman as well as dynasties like the Pala and Pratihara that went on to create sizable empires.

 Dr. Majumdar acknowledges the virtues of Harsha but also emphasizes Harshavardhana’s diplomatic connections, cordial relationships with his contemporaries, and his contribution to the establishment of a sizable empire in north India. In addition to his administrative involvement and his command of the northern areas, Harsha is acknowledged for his efforts to uphold peace, harmony, and order throughout his forty-year reign.

According to Huen Tsang’s documentation, Harsha was a generous and kind-hearted king who carried out welfare initiatives such as building Punyasalas, which provided free food, lodging, and medical care.

Harshavardhana’s donations to Nalanda University, encouragement of learning, and support of scholars are all indications of his intellectual interests.

Despite his preference for Mahayana Buddhism, he is recognized for his acceptance of other religions and his devotion to Shiva, earning him the title of Param Maheshwar.

Despite the dissolution of his empire shortly after his death, historians today generally
view Harsha as a capable ruler who faced challenges in dealing with the growing power
of the Samantas. Consequently, he is not considered the last ruler but is recognized as
a great ruler in Indian history.

Development in North India after the death of Harsha

After Harsha’s demise, Kannauj experienced a period of chaos characterized by mysterious rulers.
Certain historians bring up Yashovarman, the ruler of Kannauj in the eighth century, whose accomplishments were emphasized by Vakpatiraja. Yashovarman’s attempts to bring about political unification in northern India were unsuccessful, and as a result, the Ayudha dynasty in Kannauj rose to power.
After that, Kannauj was ruled by a feeble monarch, which led to a tripartite conflict in the eighth and ninth centuries over control of northern India.
The Pala, Pratihara, and Vakataka dynasties were involved in this conflict, which shaped the political climate in the area.

Tripartite Struggle and Development in North India

Palas

Gopal founded Palas, and Dharampal succeeded him. Devpala, Mahipal, and Rampal came next. Gopala and Dharmapala were Buddhist sympathizers. Recognized for his policies of expansion, Devapala included parts of Nepal, Assam, and Odisha into the kingdom. Though there was a downturn following Devapala, Mahipal—often regarded as a second founder—revived the Pala kingdom in the tenth century. The Kaivarta rebellion presented difficulties for Rampala, the last strong ruler, as the Ramalcharita by Sandhyakarnandi describes.

After Samanta Sen founded the Senas, the Pala kingdom eventually fell.
Renowned ruler Vijayasena is mentioned by writer Dhoyi as well as in the Deopara inscription. Vijayasena was followed by Samanta Sen and Ballalsen, the renowned scholar who wrote “Dan Sagar” and “Adhbut Sagar.” Kulimism was another social movement that emerged during this time. The last major Sena ruler, Laxman Sena, witnessed the writing of Jayadeva’s “Git Govinda.” However, Bakhtiyar Khilji invaded Bengal during the Laxman Sena’s reign.

From the eighth to the twelfth centuries CE, the Pala dynasty, a well-known Buddhist ruling family, ruled the area and had a long-lasting effect on the spread of Buddhism and the advancement of culture. The Palas established their dominance in Bengal and the eastern region during this time.

After Shashank’s death, Bengal experienced a period of lawlessness until Gopal emerged as a ruler, chosen in accordance with the inscription on the Khalimpur copper plate. Inspired by the idea of Matsya Nyaya, Gopal actively promoted Buddhism while striving to bring order back to Bengal.

The start of Pala rule was signaled by his son Dharampal, who also had plans to take Kannauj and expand his power over Rajputana, Malwa, and Punjab.
Uttarpath Swami was the title that Dharampal took on.

 Devpal carried on the family line and extended the Pala kingdom all the way to Kamrup. The region’s cultural and religious landscape is still affected by the Pala dynasty’s rule during this time.

The Palas, who were well-known for their support of literature, art, and education, made a substantial contribution to the progress of Bengali language and literature.

notably, they were instrumental in the founding of important Buddhist monasteries and universities such as Vikramasila and Nalanda.

Discuss the contribution of palas in early medieval India

Many people consider Bengal’s Pala era to be its “golden age,” having brought prosperity and stability to the area in less than a century. During this time
They maintained close connections with the Arab world, Tibet, and East Asia, and they promoted good relations with the outside world.
The Palas were acknowledged for their outstanding achievements in painting and bronze sculpture development, as well as their contributions to art and architecture.
One noteworthy accomplishment of the period was the establishment of monasteries, leading to the creation of Sompura Mahavihara and Odantapuri Vihar.
Dhiman and Vittapal became prominent artists during that era, making valuable contributions to the thriving artistic community.
The Palas were well-known supporters of Buddhism, especially the tantric branch of Vajrayana and Mahayana.
Prominent establishments such as Sompura Mahavihara, Odantapi Vihar, Nalanda University, and Vikramshila University were beneficiaries of their support.
The Palas were instrumental in the growth of trade, which led to economic prosperity.
During that time, authors such as Jimutvahan and Chakrapani Dutta wrote medical texts.
During this time, a collection of mystic poems called the Charyapads were composed; these poems are regarded as a foundational text for Bengali literature.
Gopal was considered one of the elected kings by the Pala rulers, who followed the tradition of elected kingship.

Pratiharas Dynasty

The origins of the Gurjara Pratihara dynasty, popularly referred to as the Pratiharas, are obscure. At first thought to be pastoral people connected to the epic hero Laxman, they worked as doorkeepers before becoming well-known as dwarpala officers.

The precise source of the Pratihara dynasty’s beginnings is still unknown, but some historians attribute it to Harishchandra, a ruler of Rajasthan close to Jodhpur. Nonetheless, many academics have expressed doubt about this claim. According to historical accounts, Nagabhatta I, who ruled in the eighth century, is generally regarded as the real founder.
During his reign, Nagabhatta was notable for his ability to repel Arab invasions.

Among the notable rulers of the Pratiharas, Nagabhatta II emerged as another
prominent figure. The subsequent great ruler was Mihir Bhoj, titled Adivaraha, who
actively promoted Vaishnavism. Arab travelers have documented their encounters with
Mihir Bhoj.

Following Mihir Bhoj, rulers like Mahendrapala, Mahipal, and Yashpal continued the
Pratihara legacy, maintaining control over Kannauj. However, after Yashpal,
Gahadwals assumed control of Kannauj.

Rastrakutas

As feudatories under the control of the Vatapi or Badami Chalukyas, the Rastrakutas maintained ties with the Badami Chalukyas. There are conflicting views on the origins of the Rastrakutas. Some argue that they descended from the Rathikkas, a prominent clan in the Kannad region who are referenced in the Ashoka inscription.

The Rastrakutas are generally credited to Dantidurga as their founder. Krishna I and Dhruva were two of the emperors who expanded the empire after Dantimurga.
Notably, Dhruva defeated numerous rivals by being the first to engage in the tripartite conflict. Govinda III led the tripartite conflict, and both of the kings were renowned for their military skills.

Following the reign of Govinda III, King Amogh Varsha assumed the throne and directed the establishment of a new capital city known as Manyakhet or Malkhet. Notoriety was bestowed upon Amogh Varsha for his cultural contributions and for writing the first Kannada literary work, “Kaviraja Marga.” He was well known for having an open mind and being tolerant.

Impact of this tripartite Struggle

Prolonged wars significantly reduced the Palas, Pratiharas, and Rastrakutas’ resources and power. Their strength waned over time, causing internal disintegration.

The Indian subcontinent suffered a great deal as a result of this collapse, which significantly damaged its general well-being. Arabs and later Turks took advantage of the weakening of India’s defense to gain a firm foothold over Indian territory. This made it possible for the Delhi Sultanate to eventually be established.

Chalukyas of Kalyani

 Tailapa II founded the Chalukyas of Kalyani in 973 AD, following the Rastrakutas. There was a line of succession that included the most renowned monarch, Vikramaditya VI, and Someshwar I, who was credited with enlarging the kingdom after Tailapa II.
In addition to bringing stability to the area, this dynasty promoted the growth of Kannada and Sanskrit literature.

During this time, three well-known Kannada writers—Pampa, Ponna, and Ranna—flourished and the famous book “Mansollas” was written. Vachana Sahitya and the Virashaiva movement also flourished, heralding an important period in literature and culture.

Notable for their contributions to temple architecture, especially in the creation of Vesara-style temples, were the Chalukyas of Kalyani.

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