25.Socio-Economic development

Socio-Economic Development in North India

India’s social and cultural landscape has been profoundly influenced by growing trade that transcends both regional and continental borders.

Trade that transcended borders and continents had a big impact on India’s social and cultural life.

Economics activities

The reconstruction of economic activity during this period is facilitated by multiple sources.

The most important of these is the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, which offers a wealth of information on maritime trade between Rome and India.

Important texts include the Manusmriti and Mahabhasya, as well as classic works by writers like Pliny and Tiberius, stories from the Jataka that shed light on trade and the lives of traders, Buddhist texts like Milindapanho, Divyavadana, Mahavastu, Avadanashataka, and Lalita Vistara.

Notably, in addition to coin examination, donor inscriptions are noteworthy as an important source.

The noteworthy increase in the volume of international trade during this era was a significant economic development.

India forged trade relations with Southeast Asia and the West, especially with the Roman Empire.

 The northern parts of India were heavily involved in the famous Silk Route trade, which helped to advance trade between China and Rome.

Both land and sea routes were used for trade, though the sea routes may have been more important. Throughout history, significant ports have been mentioned, including Tampralipti and Ghantsal.

During this time, the Silk Route—which was primarily under the control of the Kushana Empire—became a well-known and significant trading route.

India was connected to Europe, West Asia, and Central Asia by the magnificent Silk Road.

Approximately 4,350 miles were covered by this route, which connected Ctesiphon on the Tigris River in West Asia with Loyang on the Yellow River (also called the Huang He) in China.

 India exported a wide range of goods, including ivory, pearls, tortoise shells, textiles made of cotton, muslin, and silk that were obtained from China, pepper, sapphire, turquoise, lapis lazuli, diamond, and onyx.

A few of these products, including grains, oils, teak, ebony, iron and steel, and so on, were also shipped to ports in Africa, Arabia, and Iran.

As payment, India received enormous amounts of Roman gold (aurei) and silver (denarius) coins, which significantly reduced Rome’s wealth.

Moreover, India imported the following items: wine, silverware, glassware, coral, linen, topaz, salves, tin, lead, copper, antimony, realgar (ruby sulfur or ruby of arsenic), orpiment, and storax (also known as styrax).

India reaped substantial profits from the Indo-Roman Trade, with the trade dynamics
favoring our side. The discovery of a significant number of Roman coins in India attests
to the success and profitability of these trade interactions.

Who facilitated this trade?

Prof. D.D.Kosambi: Role of Buddhism and its Monasteries?

He asserted that the monasteries generated demand for goods like cloth and materials needed for rituals because they were significant consumers of these items. They may occasionally be able to provide merchants the funds or loans they need. It is noteworthy that the monasteries were situated along significant trade routes.

According to H.P. Ray

He argues that compared to Brahmanism, Buddhism was more liberal towards trade;
it did not have strict dietary taboos and did not ban inter-dining which was suited to
the requirements of trade. Buddhism promoted trade.

According to Upendra Singh

The growth of the money economy made trade easier.
A variety of currencies, such as the gold coin Dinara, the silver coin Purana, and the copper coin Karshapana, are mentioned in modern literature.
Other currencies mentioned are Roman coins, Potin, and south (Kasu).
Loans were easily accessible, and Manu Smriti stated that interest rates should depend on the borrower’s varna (class) and risk factor.
The Sangam texts present vivid literary representations of markets and traders, whereas the Jatakas give comprehensive accounts of lengthy caravan voyages.

Moti Chandra wrote a very popular book Trade and Trade Routes in ancient India

He underscored the significance of travelers, encompassing learners, instructors, professionals, beauticians, and performers. People went on trips for fun and adventure, to see new places, to meet friends and family, or to start over.
He presented instances from the Jatakas and discussed how travelers helped to advance trade.
India also had a significant amount of internal trade.It was conducted along the routes
- The Great Northern Route (Uttarapatha)
- The great southern route(Dakshinapatha)
The Uttarapatha connected several significant cities in the modern-day states of Punjab, Rajasthan, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar. It began in the northwest at Pushkalavati, or Peshawar, and ended at Tamralipti, or Tamluk in Bengal.
In the Deccan, a single arterial route linked Kaushambi and Ujjayini. Dakshinapatha was the name of another route that led south from Ujjayini.
An additional noteworthy advancement during the post-Mauryan era was the rise in the quantity of crafts.
The contemporary Buddhist treatise Milindapanho mentions the presence of 75
different occupations, of which almost 60 were crafts.

Role of Guilds

During this time, artisans were grouped into guilds known by the names shreni, Nigama, and goshthi in inscriptions. Their existence is also mentioned in the Jatakas.
Compared to the Mauryan period, these guilds contributed considerably more to the economy.
During this period, guilds became increasingly important, as noted by a 1990 study by Thaplyal, in which Jatakas identified eighteen important guilds.
The Jatakas emphasized the importance of leatherworkers and woodworkers in particular. Jetthakha and Pamukha were the names of these guild leaders.
There were also caravan guilds known as Sarthavahas, led by individuals called Setthi.
Archaeological records from that era speak of guilds taking on banking roles. During this period, guilds had a notable relationship with the local kings.

Agriculture

This historical period is known for its focus on agriculture, which is marked by a discernible rise in private initiative and a decrease in governmental control.
Manusmriti promoted the view that people who cultivate land should be considered its owners.
In a similar vein, Milindapanho cited examples of people clearing forests and turning land into cultivated areas.
During the Satavahana period, there are records of people giving land to the Sangha out of generosity.

Growth of Urban Centers

During the period under review, there was a notable upsurge in urban centers, signifying a noteworthy stage of urbanization.
Increased economic activity was a factor in the subcontinent’s extensive urbanization.
For the first time, cities appear to have emerged beyond the Gangetic plain, according to archeological evidence.
Chandraketugarh, Tamralipti, and Mangalkot in Bengal, Sisupalgarh in Odisha, and Sonkh near Mathura—which developed into a town urban area—were some of these new urban centers.
Santanikota and Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh, as well as Kaveripattinam, Kanchipuram, and Madurai in Tamil Nadu, were among the other notable urban developments.
During this time, fortifications were built around Vaishali, and Taxila and Sonkh (Mathura) developed into important cities.
Overall, this era witnessed a pronounced rise in the prominence and development of urban centers across the subcontinent.

Society

The introduction of foreigners, referred to as Yavanas, had a profound effect.
These outside influences went through a process of Indianization and Varna system integration over time.
As a result of this assimilation, new fashion trends and a variety of culinary items were introduced into society.
In addition, new classes and occupational groups emerged during this time, which contributed to the rise of mixed Varna and castes within the social structure.

Post Mauryan Society

Social implications

Varna system
- The cornerstones of Brahmanical ideology continued to be the four varnas and ashramas. The texts of Dharam Shastra attest to it.
- Jatkas: the varna system incorporated groups like the Yavanas.
- Rise of ‘Varna-samkara’.
- They are referred to as vratya-kshatriyas; these allusions suggest a conflict between social inclusion and exclusion.
- The three pillars of social identity that persisted were Jati, ancestry, and occupation.

The Chandalas are studied in greater detail during this historical era, and smriti texts shed light on their social standing. These people lived outside of the village and were known as “Apapatra,” which meant that they had to eat from the ground.

Chandalas were reduced to untouchable status and considered impure; this attitude was mirrored in Buddhist and Chinese writings in addition to Hindu smriti texts, indicating pervasive and extreme prejudices against them. There was some social flexibility even though the social structure appeared to be rigid due to influences like trade and urbanization.

The Bhaddrasala Jataka provides an example of this adaptability. It tells the story of the Kosala ruler’s struggle to deal with his daughter’s marriage into a different varna. He is reluctant at first to accept this marriage, but in the end he gives in, showing that although society conventions had an impact, there were times when acceptance and adaptation occurred.

Different texts that present contradictory views on women’s status clearly reinforce the patriarchal structure within the family.

The Manu Smriti, for example, emphasizes the husband’s dominance over his wife and her belongings. But it also rejects the idea of treating a wife like mere property, asserting that she cannot be sold or abandoned. This scripture views women as divine gifts rather than as goods to be purchased like cattle or gold in the marketplace. Subject to her faithfulness, the husband has a duty to support his wife without fail.

However, women’s rights gradually diminished over time, reflecting a change in cultural beliefs and expectations that affected women’s position in the family unit.

Changes in the Gupta period (300-600 BCE)

Several sources, including legal texts like Manusmriti, Naradsmriti, Vishnusmriti, and Brihaspati Smritis, provide insights into the Gupta period. Writings like Amarakosha shed light on the lexical and linguistic features of the time. Literary treasures from the era, like Kavya author Abhigyan Shakuntalam, also contribute to the enrichment of the cultural landscape.

Krishi Parashar, a prominent agricultural treatise from this era, documents agricultural practices. Puranic literature makes a substantial contribution to our comprehension of the historical and religious context. Through Fa-Hien’s accounts, foreign perspectives are captured, offering important insights into the historical context.

Epigraphic sources and coins from the Gupta era offer crucial glimpses into economic
conditions and serve as tangible artifacts of the period’s material culture. Notably, the
period is distinguished by the expansion of agriculture facilitated by land grants, a key
economic development that shaped the societal dynamics of the time.

Agrarian Expansion in Gupta period

According to inscriptions and references found in Amarakosha, land grants played a major role in the period’s notable agricultural expansion. There were many different kinds of land grants, the most notable being the Brahmadaya, Agrahara, Devdana, and Pallichanda. Secular grants, which were given to officials in place of salaries, were extremely important because they inspired the grant holders to improve and cultivate the lands.

Since recipients of these grants were excused from paying land taxes, they converted unusable areas into fruitful farming fields. Brihat Samhita observes that this process made use of irrigation facilities and higher-quality seeds.
Amarakosha attests to the variety of grains produced by these farming activities.

The partial feudalization of the land system, rather than foreign trade or monetary systems, is what separates the economic history of the Gupta era, according to R.S. Sharma. Notable was the fall in foreign trade during the Gupta era, which was linked to the decline in Indo-Roman trade. Similarly, guilds played a smaller role; examples of this can be seen in inscriptions such as the Mandsor inscription, which records the migration of silk weavers, and the Skandagupta copper plate from Indore.

During this period, there was a shift in the economic dynamics as guilds gained autonomy and started issuing their own financial instruments, like Hundi, as state control decreased.

Coins of the Gupta Period

The Gupta dynasty is well-known for its painstakingly crafted die-struck coins, and gold and silver coins from this era are frequently found. The amount of gold in these coins was initially higher than in Kushana coins, but it gradually decreased over time. R.S. Sharma claims that gold coins were not used in regular exchanges and were instead saved for large transactions.

Six varieties of gold coins were introduced by Samudragupta: the Garuda, Archer, Parsu, Vyaghra Hana, Veena Vadan, and Ashwamegh types.
Five types were introduced by Chandragupta II, including the Archer, Kshtradhari, and Ashwarohi types. Skandagupta created the Vrishad type of gold coin, while Kumaragupta introduced the Mayur type.

Even though there were many different kinds of gold coins, they weren’t used in regular transactions. The Gupta dynasty produced silver coins as well; copper coins were less common. Coins lost some of their metallic purity over time. Fa-Hien claimed that alternative methods like cowrie shells and a barter system made daily transactions easier.

Although popular belief holds that coin usage decreased during the post-Gupta era, new research casts doubt on this theory. Excellent silver coins from the 7th to the 13th century AD have been found, especially in Bengal, according to B.N. Mukherjee.
According to Mukherjee, gadhaiya coins were also used in the north during this time, suggesting a more intricate and long-lasting monetary past.

Society in the Gupta Period

Fahian’s portrayal of Indian society in the fifth century is idyllic and idealized.
He talks of joyful, contented people living peaceful, prosperous lives.

Varna system

The fourfold division remained mainly theoretical, and the Varna system continued. It was at this time that the Jati system became increasingly popular. Various texts indicate that the status of Vaishyas and Shudras improved overall as a result of agricultural advancements.

A clear division between Shudras, who were considered untouchables, and Chandalas, who were generally connected to agriculture, developed during this period. The Markandeya Puranas tasked Shudras with performing yajnas, whereas the Matsya Puranas focused on their salvation.

Another noteworthy aspect of this era is the widespread use of forced labor, or Visthi. The Narad Smriti described fifteen different kinds of slaves, but in their reports, foreign explorers did not mention slavery.

Gender relation in this period

While upper-caste women enjoyed comparatively better status during this time, women’s conditions were generally worse. Traditionally, girls were married off before they reached puberty, and only upper-class women had access to education. Interestingly, images of royal women were featured on coins, highlighting their importance.

Prabhavati Gupta was portrayed in the Vakataka inscription as a strong leader who defied conventional gender norms. The Eran inscription provides evidence of the practice of sati during this period.

The Kama Sutra mentions institutionalized prostitution, and the existence of Nagar Badhu was a feature of the social fabric. Dancers in Sanskrit, known as Ganikas, were Kamasutras and Sanskrit kavyas. Around this time, there was also documented evidence of polygamy.

Kamasutra:

A good wife serves her husband assiduously, maintains the house tidy and attractive, and effectively handles the finances of the household and the servants. She is obedient and respectful. She serves her in-laws, waits on her husband, entertains his friends, attends social events and other gatherings only with his approval, and complies with their directives. She comes to the home shrine every day to worship.

She lives a simple life, wears the fewest accessories, observes religious fasts and rituals, and only leaves the house when absolutely necessary when her husband is away.

In the garden, she cultivates a variety of plants and trees. She is knowledgeable about farming. She is skilled at farming, raising cattle, spinning, weaving, and taking care of her husband’s animals. She makes sure that her finances don’t suffer while her husband is away. Depending on how old her co-wife is, she should regard her as a mother or a sister.

The Katyayana Smriti

According to the Katyayana Smriti, a wife has to worship the household fire, live with her husband at all times, and be devoted to him. She has to take care of her husband while he’s still living and remain virgin after his passing.

Early Medieval India 600-1200 CE

Indian feudalism, which started with the establishment of the land grant system in the post-Mauryan era, was prevalent during this time. It’s crucial to remember that the idea of feudalism originated in Europe.

According to D.D.Kosambi

Feudalism was given a prominent place in the context of socio-economic history by D.D. Kosambi.
In his seminal work An Introduction to the Study of Indian History, initially published in 1956, he put forth the idea that feudalism in Indian history developed both from above and from below.

The state established the feudal structure from above by giving officials and Brahmins land and rights; from below, numerous people and small groups ascended from village levels of authority to become kings’ vassals and landlords.

Professor R.S.Sharma: Indian Feudalism, 1965

Rather than adopting the Kosambian model of feudalism emerging from below and rising from above, he saw the rise of feudalism in Indian history as a direct result of state action from above.
The Belgian historian Henri Pirenne had an impact on him.
Trade disruption caused the economy to become more inward-looking as opposed to outward-looking.

Features Early Medieval India 600-1200 CE

This historical period was characterized by a closed system of politics and social structures based on land. Peasant exploitation was common, and trade declined along with the disintegration of political power. Restrictions on the use of coins caused urban areas to deteriorate and move toward rural areas. This period, often known as Indian feudalism, is characterized by the rise of self-sufficient villages and the establishment of landed intermediaries.
Professor R. Sharma illustrated how the fall of the Guptas led to a reduction in India’s long-distance trade with other regions of the world; consequently, urbanization suffered, which in turn caused the economy to become more ruralized.
The state began giving land as payment to its grantees and employees, such as the Brahmins, since coins were scarce.
In addition to land, the state granted this new class of intermediaries additional rights over the cultivating peasants.
The peasants’ rising subjugation to the middlemen brought them down to the status of serfs, who were the equivalent of them in medieval Europe.
B.N.S. Yadava and D.N. Joshi further developed and reinforced Sharma’s arguments.
In 1979, however, Harbans Mukhia questioned, whether feudalism in Indian History? He questioned approach of R.S. Sharma.
John S. Deyell, Ranbir Chakravarti, and B.D. Chattopadhyaya also asked questions.
They rejected the urban decay theory.

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