Development in Philosophy refers to the advancements, changes, and evolution of philosophical ideas and theories over time. Philosophy is a discipline that explores fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, ethics, and the
nature of reality.
Darshana (Philosophy)
We have different Darshan schools. The Major School of Darshan emphasized the importance of achieving all four life goals. Purushartha refers to these four common goals.
These are dharma, artha, kama, and moksha.
Dharma : Dharma is a code of duty.
There are two types of Dharma:
- Varnashram Dharma.
- Samanya Dharma(Universal Dharma).
Artha : Artha is a material achievement.
Kama : Kama is seeking sensual pleasures.
Moksha : Moksha is seeking liberation. It is considered as the final goal. There are different
paths to achieve this goal. It can be Gyan marga, karma Marg, Bhakti marga.
We have two main schools of philosophy
1. Orthodox : We have 6 schools of thought.
2. Heterodox : We have 4 schools of thought.
Development in Philosophy : Heterodox School
They do not believe in the Vedas, challenge the concept of God’s existence, and dismiss the
authority of Brahmanas.
- Jainism
- Buddhism
- Ajivikas
- Materialistic
Jainism Philosophy
The Syadvada and Anekantavada philosophy holds that knowledge is incomplete by definition. Their major goal is to purify the soul.
Budha Philosophy
Buddhist philosophy is based on several principles, notably the Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path. According to the Four Noble Truths, suffering is a natural result of attachment and cravings, but it can be overcome through a road to liberation. The Eightfold Path consists of eight principles that aim to alleviate suffering and lead to enlightenment.
Buddhist philosophy explores concepts such as karma, impermanence, and non-self. Buddhist philosophy seeks to understand the essence of life, the causes of suffering, and the path to freedom and enlightenment. This paradigm promotes ethical life, personal growth, and the cultivation of wisdom and compassion.
Ajivikas
Gosala Maskari Putra founded the Ajivaka philosophy, which was contemporaneous with Buddhism and Jainism in ancient India. This school of thought is considered heretical. Ajivaka’s philosophy holds that everything in the universe, including human activities, is predetermined and influenced by fate or destiny. This philosophical system believes that events and acts are influenced by a cosmic force known as niyati, which shapes an individual’s life.
Materialistic philosophy
Materialistic philosophy holds that matter is the essential substance of the cosmos. The theory suggests that all phenomena, including thoughts, emotions, and awareness, may be understood through material interactions. Brihaspati founded this school of thinking, which became popular among the common people under Charvaka. Charvaka’s theory, also known as Lokayat philosophy, opposes the concept of God, soul, and rebirth. This worldview prioritizes enjoying life, including eating, drinking, and celebrating, without regard for divine or spiritual components.
Development in Philosophy : Orthodox (Aastika)
The term “Orthodox” (Aastika) refers to schools that support the authority of the Vedas. Orthodox philosophical systems believe in the existence of God and the principle of dharma. They are considered orthodox because they follow Vedic scriptures.
Orthodox schools of thought helped shape Hindu philosophy, rituals, and spiritual practices. They offer diverse viewpoints on reality, knowledge, and emancipation.
The six schools of thought collectively known as Shad Darshan encompass various
philosophical perspectives within Hinduism.
- Samkhya
- Yoga
- Nyaya
- Vedanta
- Vaisheshika
- Mimamsa
Samkhya
This is the oldest orthodox school, which incorporates Upanishadic and Vedic principles.
Kapil Muni founded the Samkhya school, which later developed into a spiritualistic philosophy. The Samkhya school believes that Prakriti and Purusha are absolute and independent entities who created the world. To achieve salvation, one must acquire knowledge by perception, inference, and hearing.
Yoga
The Yoga school believes that meditation and yogic techniques can lead to salvation, as outlined in Patanjali’s Yogasutra. Controlling one’s mind and body can lead to salvation. This school stresses ‘Ashtanga,’ which refers to the eight limbs that lead to spiritual emancipation.
Nyaya
Nyaya philosophy, credited to Akshapada Gautama and expounded in the Nyayasutra, believes that salvation can be achieved via rational and scientific thought. Nyaya Darshan emphasizes the need of clear and reasonable intellect in determining truth.
Vaisheshikha school
Uluka Kanada developed the Vaisheshikha school, which advocates for atomic theory and the idea that all material objects are made up of atoms. Accepting the atomic nature of reality is said to aid in the pursuit of redemption.
Mimamsa
Jaimini invented Mimamsa, which emphasizes doing Vedic rituals for salvation. This school emphasizes the ritualistic interpretation of the Vedas and the need to accomplish all specified responsibilities.
Vedanta
Badarayana’s Brahmasutra, a treatise on Vedanta, emphasizes the importance of self-knowledge for salvation. Shankaracharya advocated the idea of identifying Brahma with oneself. Vedanta is a philosophical school that interprets the Upanishads, focusing on the self (Atman) and ultimate reality (Brahman). Advaita Vedanta, Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, and Dvaita Vedanta are sub-schools of the larger Vedanta philosophy.
Trends in Early Medival India
- Popularity of Vedanta- By Shankaracharya.
- Popularity of Bhakti in south India (Shaivism and Vaishnavism)
- Popularity of Tantric influence.
The Shankaracharya (788-820 AD)
Shankaracharya, born in Kerala, is credited for revitalizing Hinduism and elevating the Vedanta philosophy. He wrote authoritative interpretations on ancient Hindu literature like the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and Brahma Sutras, which greatly influenced their interpretation.
Shankaracharya unified several cults in India and systematized Vedanta philosophy. He believed that the soul in living beings is connected to the cycle of reincarnation, and that the universe is an illusion. Shankaracharya believed in the notion of ‘Brahma Satyam Jagat Mithya’, which states that there is no distinction between individuals and Brahma. Correct knowledge is essential for comprehending this identity. Advaitvad rejects duality.
During his travels in India, Shankaracharya debated with experts from other philosophical systems. He established four monastic centers (mathas) across India: Jyotir Math (North India), Shingeri Math (South India), Govardhan Matha (Puri), and Kalika Math (Dwaraka). He organized ascetics into 10 orders called Dashnamis and highlighted the need of ethics for spiritual advancement. Shankaracharya incorporated Buddhism and converted Brahminism into mainstream Hinduism.
Rise of Bhakti Tradition
Tamil Bhakti movement
- The Bhakti movement originated in southern India between the 7th and 12th century CE.
- In South India, there were two great groups of Bhakti saints: Nayanars (Shiva devotees) and Alvars (Vishnu devotees 12).
- They journeyed and signed Tamil hymns in worship of their gods.
- During their travels, the Alvars and Nayanars discovered shrines dedicated to their chosen deities, which eventually became pilgrimage sites.
- The Nalayira Divyaprabanda, often known as the Tamil Veda, is regarded as equally important as the four Sanskrit Vedas.
- Notable female devotees were Andal (Vaishnav) and Manika Vachakar (Shaiva).
- Vaishnav Acharya developed philosophical bhakti after the 12th century.The most important name was Ramanujacharya
Ramanujacharya
Ramanujacharya, also known as Ramanuja or Ramanujacharya Ilaya Perumal, was a renowned philosopher in South India, originally from Tamil Nadu. Born in the 11th century in Sriperumbudur, he was a Hindu theologian and a key figure in the Sri Vaishnavism movement. Under Yadav Prakash’s supervision, he studied philosophy and was influenced by Shankaracharya. However, he eventually criticized Advaita philosophy. Ramanujacharya asserted that the road of devotion (bhakti marg) is more approachable for approaching God.
Ramanujacharya, known for his commentaries on the Vedas, Upanishads, and Bhagavad Gita, promoted devotion and worship of Lord Vishnu as the highest deity. He sought to connect the popular bhakti marg movement with the academic pursuits of the upper elite, known as gyan marg.
Ramanujacharya’s philosophy is known as Vishishtadvaita, which translates to “qualified non-dualism.” This philosophy views individual souls (jivas) as eternal creatures that exist independently of the ultimate reality, Brahman, yet rely on it for survival. Ramanujacharya advocated for surrendering to God via devotion and selfless service to achieve salvation.
| Advaita | Vishista Advaita |
| Shankaracharya | Ramanujacharya |
| 8th-9th Century | 12th Century |
| Gyan Marg | Bhakti Marg |
| God and you are identical | You have to reach God through Bhakti marg. |
| Bhakti marg |
Ramanujacharya’s commentary on the Brahmasutra, Shri Bhasya, provided a significant intellectual foundation for the Bhakti Cult. He advocated for a loving relationship between humans and God.
His ideas greatly influenced the Bhakti movement in South India, creating the region’s religious and intellectual foundation. Ramanujacharya’s disciples established the Sri Vaishnavism tradition, which is still widely practiced today.
Contribution of Madhvacharya
Madhvacharya, also known as Madhva or Anandatirtha, was a prominent philosopher and theologian during the 13th century. He made substantial contributions in philosophy, religion, and literature. Madhvacharya, the founder of the Dvaita Vedanta school of thought, emphasized the dualism of the particular self (jiva) and the ultimate truth (Brahman).
Unlike Shankaracharya and Ramanujacharya, Madhvacharya took a critical position and proposed dualism. He denied that the world is an illusion, arguing that the Supreme God Vishnu and the individual soul are separate beings. Madhvacharya claimed that freedom is possible by the mercy of God.
Shakti Cult
The Martandya Purana explores Shakti, and during this time, the Devi-Mahatmya, Sapta Matrika, Ashta Matrika, and Nine Matrika became prominent.
There were 51 Shakti Pithas, with Nishumbha Mardini being the most popular. Local deities, like Kamakhya in Assam, have gained appeal at a regional level.
Tantrism
Tantrism, also known as Tantra, is a spiritual system in ancient India that combines Hinduism, Buddhism, and indigenous beliefs. It originated in the 5th century CE. Tantrism originated from non-Aryan tribal fertility ceremonies and evolved from dissatisfied followers of mainstream faiths seeking spiritual and magical powers. In early medieval India, it became popular and challenged established religions like as Jainism, Buddhism, Saivism, and Vaishnavism.
Tantrism uses a variety of ways to channel divine energy, including rituals, meditations, visions, mantras, and physical exercises. Tantra considers the body as a sacred instrument for spiritual transformation, unlike other traditions that see it as a hindrance to enlightenment. Tantra, which worships both male and female deities, aims to transcend duality by embracing the oneness of opposites.
The lineage, including Kashmir Shaivism, Shakti Tantra, and Buddhist Tantra, has influenced Indian art, literature, and philosophy. Tantra, often associated with sexual rituals, actually encompasses a variety of spiritual practices aimed at achieving enlightenment and liberation.
Features of Tantrism
Tantrism exhibits distinct features that set it apart from mainstream traditions
Five Makars’ Belief : Tantric practitioners believe in the importance of the “Five Makars,” which include fish (Matsya), meat (Mansa), sex (Mithun), liquor (Madya), and physical gestures (Mudra).
Spirit of revolt : Tantrists are known for their rebellious spirit and opposition to Vedic ceremonies, dharma, and other orthodox features.
Profession of Equality : Tantric philosophy promotes equality and rejects existing society hierarchies.
Challenge to the Brahmanical Approach : Tantrism challenges the traditional Brahmanical approach and contradicts conventional interpretations.
Focus on female deities : Tantric traditions emphasize the worship of female deities, challenging patriarchal conventions.
Advocacy for Women’s Higher Status : Tantric teachings recommend a higher status for women, challenging societal norms and advocating for gender equality.
Existence of 64 Yoginis : Tantrism acknowledges the presence of 64 Yoginis, representing divine feminine energies in their spiritual framework.
Recognition of 51 Shakti : Within the Tantric tradition, there is acknowledgment and reverence for 51 Shakti, embodying various aspects of divine feminine power.
Belief in Mantra and Bija Repetitions : Tantric practitioners engage in the repetitive recitation of mantras and bijas, considering them essential for spiritual progress.
Utilization of Symbolic Drawings : Tantrism employs symbolic drawings such as mantras, chakras, and yantras as powerful tools in their spiritual practices.
Development in Science & Mathematics
The idea that ancient Indians were primarily interested in mystical pursuits without a scientific mindset is incorrect. In prehistoric India, there was substantial progress in lithic technology, exhibiting core tools, flake tools, and polished tools. The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) saw breakthroughs in weights and measures, agricultural technologies, and irrigation methods.
During the Vedic era, sacrifice altars, metallurgical breakthroughs, and pottery technology were discovered. India’s mathematical prowess was exemplified by Baudhyana’s Shulba Sutra, Apastamba’s practical geometry conceptions, Aryabhata’s contributions to astronomy and algebra, and Brahmagupta’s introduction of negative numbers.
In the domain of science, metallurgical breakthroughs like the Iron Pillar of Mehrauli and progress in dyeing, sugar extraction, and paper manufacture were important. Nagarjuna’s contributions to chemistry, Rasarnava in medieval India, and breakthroughs in physics, such as atomic theory (vaisheshika) and astronomy, are examples of scientific achievements.
Ancient shipbuilding skills were outlined in the Yukti Kalp Taru, while medical sciences were influenced by Atreya, Agnivesha, Charak Samhita, Susrut Samhita, Vagbhatta’s Astanga Sangraha, and the Navanitakam. The Bower manuscript and books on veterinary medicine highlight the extensive scientific advancements in ancient and early medieval India.
Development of Education Institutions
❖ Nalanda
❖ Vikramshila
❖ Vallabhi
In ancient India, education institutions evolved around the Guru-Shishya Parampara, with Gurukulas becoming significant centers of learning. Gurukulas, similar to educational families, transformed a guru’s home into an ashram.
Admission to Gurukulas required the Upanayana sanskaras ceremony. Initially, education took place mostly in religious institutions such as temples, viharas, Buddhist viharas, and mathas.
During early medieval India, Brahmanical learning flourished in areas like Nadia in Bengal, Mithila in Bihar, and Dhar and Ajmer. Takshashila University and Nalanda Mahavihar University are examples of well-known university-like institutions that emerged over time.
Nalanda Mahavihara, a residential and academic institution in Bihar, was founded by Gupta emperor Kumargupta with gifts from Harshavardhan. According to Chinese reports, Nalanda had 1,500 teachers and 10,000 students, including those from South East Asia. The university had a diverse curriculum and a library, including the Ratna Sagar building, which was unfortunately destroyed during Bakhtiyar Khilaji’s invasion.
Nalanda produced notable scholars like as Dharmapala, Dharmakirti, and Shilabhadra. Huen Tsang visited Vallabhi, a center of Hinayana Buddhism, which has international recognition. Vallabhi, developed by the Maitrakas, was a significant component of Buddhist instruction.
Vikramshila University, another significant institution, emerged under the patronage
of Pala ruler Dharma Pala. Often consid0ered Nalanda’s sister institution, Vikramshila
was renowned for its main lecture hall, Vidya Griha, offering education in subjects
similar to Nalanda. The university excelled in teaching the tantric form of Buddhism,
with Atisha Dipankara being a prominent scholar.
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