5. archaeological Sources of Ancient Indian History:-

study of human history using artifacts such as fossils, tools, terracotta, seals, paintings, and pottery.

The importance of archeological sources in piecing together the mysterious history of ancient India cannot be overstated. Expert archaeologists bring the rich cultural legacy of the enormous subcontinent to life through painstaking excavation, in-depth analysis, and perceptive interpretation, bringing history to life. This article sets out on an engrossing journey, exploring the rainbow of archaeological materials scattered throughout the Indian terrain, revealing the fascinating techniques used in their finding and conservation, and unveiling their significant implications in understanding the long-lost civilizations that once thrived on this sacred ground.

archaeological sources are extremely important when,

1. No written materials are available.
2. Historians are unable to understand the plot.
3. To be aware of the technology and means of subsistence utilized at that time.
4. To use architecture and art to better understand how people think.

The following steps are followed during archaeological excavation:

Step 1: Locating the sites – Sometimes by chance, but mostly based on literary references.

Step 2: Excavation -> There are two kinds of excavation:

• Horizontal excavation: appropriate for large areas.
• Vertical excavation: appropriate for small areas.

Non-destructive excavation is ensured by archaeologists through the use of field surveys, remote sensing, and skilled labor.

Step 3: Dating decision.

Some dating methods used in archeology :

1. Carbon-14 Method
2. Thermoluminescence
3. Potassium-Argon Method
4. Electron spin resonance Method
5. Paleomagnetic Dating
6. Dendrochronology(Tree-ring dating)

Different disciplines within archeology:

• Field Archeology
• Marine Archeology
• Salvage Archeology -> excavation of endangered sites.
• Ethno Archaeology.

Three archeological sources:-
❖ Inscription
❖ Coins
❖ Monuments

The study materials remain to understand the past!
An archeological source improves our knowledge related to our history and presents
important evidence for verifying the claims of historians.

It is indispensable for those periods that did not have any writing:
for example, the prehistoric and proto-historic periods of Indian history.
Archeological methods like excavation and exploration are important and provide a
significant amount of data on state, economy, societal aspects, religion, and mundane
aspects like how people lived, ate, and clothed themselves.
Archaeological sources may voice the sentiments of what the common folks felt, saw, and
lived.

Inscriptions:-

Inscriptions are the writings engraved on hard surfaces. They were written
mostly on rocks, stones, walls of buildings, metals, etc. They depicted important events of
the past. Various languages such as Prakrit, Sanskrit, Kannada, etc., were used for
writing the inscriptions. They also give us rich information about the scripts used in the
past. The Ashokan Inscription, one of the earliest rock inscriptions, was written in
Brahmi script. It depicts the great Kalinga War which changed his life.
Inscription writing was engraved on stones, pillars, caves, metal plates, pottery, and
seals. Inscription is called Epigraphy.

Inscriptions can be official(rulers) or private. The popular official inscriptions are called
Prashastis. For example Prayag prashastis. They are called royal inscriptions in praise of
the king.

The inscription can also be donative, dedicative, and commemorative.

❖ Donative inscriptions Ex. Land grants.
❖ Dedicative inscriptions -> Dedicated to some sect or some religion.
❖ Commemoratives related to some events like the Birth of Buddha.

Examples:-

❖ Related Ashoka inscriptions like Rocks, Edicts, Pillar Edict, and Cave Edict.
❖ Junagarh rock inscription (Rudradaman).
❖ We have a Nasik inscription and a Nanaghat inscription related to Satavahanas.
❖ Boghazkoi Inscription(Aryans).
❖ Prayag prashasti.
❖ Eran Inscription.
❖ Mandasor Inscription.
❖ Hathigumpha Inscription(Kharvela).
❖ Aihole Inscription.

Significance of Inscriptions as Historical Sources:-

❖ They help us in maintaining chronology.
❖ They tell us the achievements of rulers that are not mentioned in the literature(for
example Prayag prashasti).
❖ They have helped historians in solving confusion regarding the names of the rulers.
❖ They tell us about the extent of the empire.
❖ They tell us about the technology used.
❖ They tell us about their economic information also. Ex. land grants.
❖ They used different local scripts, practices, and local culture -> It helps historians in
constructing regional history.

Limitation:-

❖ They are very brief.
❖ Local languages used in inscriptions can be interpreted in different ways.
❖ Use of local scripts and local words -> hence difficult to understand.
❖ Royal inscriptions are generally exaggerated.
❖ Some parts are missing or damaged.

Coins as a Source:-

The word coin is derived from the Latin word ‘Cuneus’. They were first used in China and Greece around 700 B.C. and in India around the 6th century B.C. The study of coins is called
Numismatics. Coins are as important as the inscription in history. They confirm the information derived from the literature. They are of various metals: gold, silver, copper, or
alloy, and contain legends or simple marks. Those with dates are probably very valuable for the framework of Indian Chronology.

Significance of Coins as a source of history :

1. Coins have a connection to the history of money, which involves an examination of the quantity, frequency, and production and circulation of coinage. For instance. The extensive distribution of Kushana coins suggests that trade was thriving during this time.
2. The presence of ships on some Satavahana coins signifies the significance of maritime commerce in the Deccan in the modern era.
3. Roman coins discovered throughout India attest to the existence of Indo-Roman commerce.
4. Even though dates are uncommon on early Indian coins—the Western Kshatrapa Coins of the Shaka era and some silver coins from the Gupta era are the only exceptions—they are essential for dating a period through archaeological excavation.
5. Coins have served as a significant medium for transmitting royal messages and are therefore a valuable source of information about Indian politics from 200 BCE to 300 CE. Nearly all of the information about the Indo-Greek kings comes from their coins.
6. The word “Gana” refers to the non-monarchical political structure of the tribal republics of Yaudheyas and Malvas, as seen on their coins.
7. City coins allude to the significance and potential independence of particular city administrations.
8. Coins, like those honoring marriages, have also provided insight into the private lives of monarchs. Coins also bear witness to the Ashvamedha sacrifice performed by Samudra and Kumaragupta I.
9. The representation of deities on coins reveals details about royal religious policy, the origins of religious cults, and the personal religious preferences of monarchs.

Evolution of Coins:

❖ Prehistoric period -> No evidence was found of coin usage.
❖ Harappan period -> No evidence was found of coin usage. However, a barter system
was developed for trading purposes.
❖ Vedic period -> No evidence was found of coin usage.
❖ Age of Mahajanpadas -> Real beginning of development and usage of coins. These
coins are called Punch Marked coins(Royal coins).
❖ Post Mauryan Period -> More refined, uniform, and Inscribed coins(Gold) are found
belonging to this period.
❖ Gupta periods -> Numerous coin kinds, including gold, silver, and copper coins, have been discovered during excavation.

❖ We are obtaining hoards of coins, including copper, silver, and gold, that have been found across the nation and that provide us insight into the past. Ex: the hoards of the Bayana (Gupta) and the Jogalthambhi (Satavahana).

❖ Coins were not used until the Mahajanapadas period. Certain words Niskha, like Hiranya Pinda, and Suvarna, like shatmana, were mentioned in Vedic texts. However, they are not regarded as currency.

❖ Words such as Karsapana and pada shamana are even found in some Buddhist texts and Ashtadhyayi. However, they weren’t regarded as coins because they were used for trade.

❖ Red and black ratti seeds served as the fundamental weight unit for Indian coins.

❖ Punched-marked coins are the oldest coins that are currently in circulation. Symbols were used to stamp these coins. They lacked an inscription.

Mahajanapadas Period:

Punch-marked coins made mainly of silver and occasionally copper were in use during the Mahajanapadas period.

❖ They were usually rectangular, but occasionally they were square or circular.

❖ The symbols were hammered out of these using punches and dies. They are referred to as punch-marked coins for this reason.

❖ Merchants, traders, and certain city groups issued them.

❖ Punch-marked coins had symbols stamped on the metallic portions, according to Panini’s Ashtadhyayi.

❖ A “Ratti” was the name given to each unit, which weighed 0.11 grams. This coin’s earliest evidence dates to the second or sixth century BC.

The Punch-marked coins can be further classified into four categories:

• Taxila-Gandhara type
• Kosala type
• Avanti type
• Magadhan type

A Large number of tribal coins were also found in Rajasthan and Punjab. Some of them
were issued by Youdheyas, Audembaras, and Kullutas. They are also similar to punch
mark coins.

Post Mauryan Period :

Archaeologists discovered royal coins from the post-Mauryan era, and Indo-Greeks were the first to produce royal coins. The ruler’s name was mentioned on these inscribed coins. Coins during this time were changed to become more elegant, consistent, and regal. These coins featured the king’s name and occasionally his image as well. They can have multiple scripts and languages over them at times.

Kushana coins –

1. During the Kushana period, coins showed significant improvement.
2. While some aspects of the Indo-Greek coinage tradition were adhered to, there were notable departures from the Indo-Greek influence.
3. Coinage provides much of the information that is available about Kushana’s political history.
4. Inscriptions in the Bactrian language are frequently written in a script that was derived from Greek.
5. The tamga symbols are used as the king’s monogram on a number of coins.
6. A significant part of the empire appears to have been semi-independent, based on coin evidence and the existence of several provincial mints.
7. Coin development also took place in South India during this time.

Gupta period :

Gupta rulers issued different types of coins like silver and copper coins. They are
called Propaganda coins because many Gupta rulers used their coins to spread their
propaganda.

Post-Guptas period :

❖ The coins continued particularly in south India and we found different types of coins
like Kalanju, Kasu, and Fanam and even Roman coins belonging to this period.
❖ However, North India witnessed a decline in coins mainly because of a decline in
trade and commerce.

Significance of coins as a Source of history :-

• They are greatly beneficial in building the history of the post-Mauryan era.
• You can obtain lesser-known titles by using coins.
• They allude to the king’s private interest. For example, Samudragupta’s passion for Veena music.
• They allude to the ruler’s religion and worldview.
• The amount and usage of coins in each region can be used to determine the strength of their economy.
• They also assist us in understanding their international relations.

Monuments as a Source:-

1. Indian monuments, with their intricate superfluities and exquisite architecture, are among the most remarkable representations of the rich and diverse Indian civilization. Every Indian monument is an architectural marvel that embodies a sense of romance, mystery, and deceit. It is a breathtaking display of extraordinary artistry. Whether it is the wonder of white marble, the Taj Mahal, or the splendor of red stone, the stunning Red Fort, the art of master craftsmanship and elegance accentuates the beauty of the ancient past. In addition to being the guardians of India’s cultural legacy, monuments serve as witnesses to the country’s past. The monuments of India are an inspiration to future generations.
2. In Hinduism, temples are regarded as among the most significant locations. Hindus view them as a hallowed location where they can go to worship and communicate with their gods.
   Temples are significant in people’s minds and are frequently interpreted as symbols of hope. A temple serves as a haven of solace for many Hindus in trying circumstances.
3. Viharas are monastic residences where Buddhist teachings are taught. The disciples learned Buddhist texts from the monks. In addition, physicians provided care for patients with medical conditions in viharas. Common people contributed to the construction and operating costs of viharas, including farmers and artisans.
4. Indian art is particularly notable for its sculpture, of which the earliest known
   examples date from the Indus Valley civilization (5000–1500 BC).

Significance :

• Historians can interpret the scientific and technological developments of the era through these monuments.
• The individuals’ artistic abilities indicate their familiarity with geometry and symmetry.
• The development of these monuments over time can be used to trace the evolution of culture. Historical Interpretation of Ancient India: Some have argued that Ancient India lacks historical context.
• Alberuni was the first to remark that “ the Hindus do not pay much attention to the historical order of things……”
• L.J. Trotter and W.H.Hutton:….” the old Hindus produced, not one historian of even the smallest mark.”

Embedded history is where the historical consciousness has
to be prised out, as in myth, epic, and genealogy. Externalized history reflects a more
evident and self-conscious historical consciousness, reflected for instance in chronicles and
biographies. Thapar points out that the embedded forms of historical consciousness
tended to be connected with lineage-based societies and the externalized ones to state
societies.

Romila Thapar

Itihas-Purana Tradition

1. Ancient and Modern societies differ from each other in so many respects. It is not surprising to find major differences in their ways of looking at the past.
2. The historical traditions of ancient India were connected with religious, ritualistic, and court contexts.
3. ‘Itihasa’ literally means ‘thus indeed it was’.
4. ‘Purana’ means that which is old and includes events and stories that are believed to be ancient times.

Conclusion:-

Writing about ancient history and writing about modern history differs in certain ways. Given that every nation has a history writing tradition, Indians were historically aware. Itihas-Purana, our tradition, evolved to meet our cultural needs.

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